Thursday, September 23, 2010

Noah's Global Flood: Enough Water for 40 Days of Rain?

Yes! Enough for 23 inches a day worldwide for 40 days, from water trapped in volcanic magmas from Earth's LIPs (Large Igneous Provinces).

Volcanism, "Fountains of the Great Deep," and Forty Days of Rain, by Hamilton Duncan

Marko’s summary: A common criticism of the Biblical Flood account is that it would be impossible for rain to occur 40 days and nights over the surface of the entire earth without stopping.

If you believe in the Almighty Creator God who created the entire Universe miraculously in six days, it would be no great difficulty for him to supply that much water. He could have done it miraculously, of course. Or he could have done it by using what was already available on Earth and the Solar System.

Hamilton Duncan shows that there is at least enough water trapped in molten rock (magmas) beneath the surface of the earth to supply 23 inches a day for 40 days everywhere on the planet! But how could all that water suddenly shoot into the atmosphere? A simultaneous bombardment of comets and meteors worldwide would be enough to cause the upper layer (mantle) of the Earth’s surface to lead to sudden decompression of the upper mantle, which would cause the trapped water to vaporize and erupt spectacularly into the earth’s atmosphere, shooting many miles up into the sky. Duncan concludes: “A world where 40,000 volcanoes simultaneously erupt would be extremely dreadful and may very well be the world referred to in Genesis 7 and 8.”

Of course, the miraculous hand of God is involved at some point! He is the one that warned Noah that the Flood was coming, and told him exactly how to build the Ark to take refuge. He is the one that sent the rains at their appointed time, and caused them to stop on the 40th day. May we recognize the awesome majesty, splendor and strength of our Creator (1st Chronicles 16:26-27).

(This review and article digest is by Marko Malyj, of the article published in Creation Research Society Quarterly Journal, Volume 47, Number 1, Summer, 2010, to appear at http://www.creationresearch.org/crsq/abstracts/Abstracts47-1.htm).

Abstract


Water is the primary gas released during virtually all volcanic eruptions. Gravimetric analysis of large igneous provinces indicates the liberation of water from their magmas could have contributed at least 58 cm of rain worldwide every day for forty days. Under the scenario of global decompression from bolide impacts, the forty days of rain came from four potential sources: (1) liberation from volcanism, (2) destruction of vapor canopy, (3) vaporization of existing liquid water upon bolide [comet, meteor, etc.] impact, and (4) vaporization of bolides.

Introduction

The phrase "fountains of the great deep" in the Bible appears three times: Genesis 7:11, Genesis 8:2, and Proverbs 8:28. Genesis associates the fountains of the great deep with rain. 

These fountains may be the eruption of crustal and subcrustal magmas, which would have "caused" the Global Flood of Noah's day. (Dickens and Snelling, 2008; Dillow, 1981; Hunter, 1996; Rehwinkel, 1951; Whitcomb and Morris, 1961). The "effect" would have been large releases of lava and volatiles into the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide, sulfur, chlorine, and fluorine are common, but water vapor is the most abundant volatile (Johnson et al., 1994). If water vapor released during an eruption is forced high into the atmosphere, it will cool and condense. The liquid water can precipitate or revaporize (Fetter, 1988). Therefore, rainfall can be sustained indefinitely by sufficient volcanism.

Volcanism and the Flood Waters

Presently there is approximately 1.27 x 1019 grams of water in the atmosphere (Trenberth and Smith, 2005), which is enough to provide approximately 2.5 cm (1.0 inch) of rain simultaneously across the entire Earth's surface (Dillow, 1981; Fox, 1952; Whitcomb and Morris, 1961). This modest amount of water would be insufficient to generate a global flood. Therefore, magmas would have had to liberate considerably more than the 1019 grams of water in order to sustain forty days of rain.

Snelling (2008) quoted previous investigators who determined granites could disolve 24 weight percent water at 100 km depth. Rhyolite melts can contain up to 21 wt % H2O at 10 kbars pressure (Sood, 1981) which is equivalent to 36 km depth (22 miles, Blatt et al., 2006). Andesitic melts can dissolve 10 wt % H2O, and basaltic melts can disolve 14 wt % H2O under similar conditions (Middlemost, 1985; Annen et al., 2006). Mitchell (1986) discusses how kimberlites could have contained 40% H2O at a depth of 200 km.

Magmas degassing these large amounts of water vapor at Earth's surface could have contributed significant amounts of precipitation for the Flood.

Rainfall during the Flood

Determine the precise amount of precipitation during the Flood could begin with a quantification of water liberated from erupted magmas. The largest known volcanic emplacements on Earth consist almost exclusively of basalt and are called large igneous provinces (LIPs) (Figure 1), as defined by Coffin and Eldholm (1994).

Figure 1. Distribution of known large igneous provinces (in black, after Reviews of Geophysics, by Coffin and Eldholm, 1994)


Before the acronym "LIP" was coined, Schubert and Sandwell (1989) published a paper estimating the volumes of continental submarine plateaus, oceanic plateaus, and thermal swells, much of what is now known as LIPs. The total volue is 605,603,000 km3. Kovalenko et al. (2007) reported H2O values for corresponding volcanic settings.

When gravimetric analysis is applid to the information supplied by both Schubert and Kovalenko, a volume of 605,603,000 km3 of basaltic magma would have yielded a total of 1.174 x 1023 grams H2O. This estimate gives a "rough idea" for a minimum value of global precipitation during the Flood. Continental LIPs and other forms of volcanism are underrepresented in this study.

High Velocity Volcanism

Basaltic magma is capable of spectacular eruptions. An example of rapidly ascending, degassing basaltic magma are kimberlites, famous for their association with diamonds. (Evans, 1987; Heinrich, 1966; Milashev, 1984; Mitchell, 1986; Morgan et al., 2004; Smith, 1999c). McGretchen and Ullrich (1973) have modeled ascent rates ranging from 25 meters/sec at 90 km deep to 334 m/s at the surface.

These launch velocities would have sent volatiles several kilometers high into the atmosphere. The suborbital presence of volatiles would have collapsed any existing vapor canopy and contributed additional precipitation to the Flood (Dillow, 1981; Hunter, 1996; Jorgensen, 1990; Whitcomb and Morris, 1961).

Cause of Concentrated, Global Volcanism

Although the Bible tells us "why" God flooded Earth, it does not provide many details about "how". One vital clue appears in Genesis 7:11: "The same day were all the fountains of th great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened." What could cause concentrated, global volcanic eruptions on the same day?

Decompression melting is considered the most common form of melting in the crust and mantle. Hunter (2000) has proposed that rocks were decompressed globally by a miraculous change in the gravitational constant. Another alternative is that bolide impacts could have created areas of concentrated decompression worldwide and intiated the Flood.

Bolides are meteors, meteorites, or comets (Jackson, 1997; Smith, 1999d). Many investigators believe Earth was bombarded by bolides in the past (Gilmour and Koeberl, 2000; Glikson, 2001; Norman et al. 1977; Oard, 2009; Spencer, 1998a; Unfred, 1984; Whitcomb and Morris, 1961).

A rapid, global bombardment could have led to extensive fracturing, segmental upper mantle decompression, LIP emplacement (Jones, 2005; Jones et. al, 2002), and diatreme emplacement (Oard, 2009). The modeled ascent speeds of kimberlite and basaltic magmas attest to the accuracy of the Bible's recording how the fountains of the great deep were "broken up" on the same day.

Bolides may have contributed to the Flood in other ways. If they struck water, the impact would have vaporized water near the impact area (Ingle and Coffin, 2004; Spencer, 1998b). Additionally, comets are comprised mainly of water (Campins et al., 2004; Dasch, 1996b; Hartmann, 1989), and if comets struck Earth, they would have been vaporized upon impact.

Therefore, under the scenario of global decompression from bolide impacts, the forty days of rain came from four potential sources:
  1. liberation from volcanism,
  2. destruction of vapor canopy
  3. vaporization of existing liquid water upon bolide impact
  4. vaporization of bolides
Conclusion

The conjunction of the "fountains of the great deep" and "windows of heaven" at the beginning of the Flood suggests a causal relationship. Voluminous magmatic emplacements with water contents measured today could have provided at least 58 cm (23 inches) of rain worldwide everyday for forty days.

An abrupt catastrophic event must have triggered these phenomena. A global bolide impact event could have triggered tremendous crustal volcanism through decompression of the mantle and fracturing of the lithosphere. Moreover, bolide impacts may have initiated LIP emplacements and the launching of volatiles including water vapor through diatremes.

There are over 40,000 volcanoes on Earth, with 1,500 of them active (Dasch, 1996b). A world where 40,000 volcanoes simultaneously erupt would be extremely dreadful and may very well be the world referred to in Genesis 7 and 8.

References (selected)

Annen, C., J.D. Blundy, and R.S.J. Sparks. 2006. The genesis of intermediate and silicic magmas in deep crustal hot zones. Journal of Petrology 47(3):526.

Blatt, H., R.C. Tracy, and B.E. Owens. 2006. Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York, NY.

Campins, H., T.D. Swindle, and D.A. Kring. 2004. Evaluating comets as a source of Earth's water. In Seckbach, J. (editor), Origins, Evolution, and Biodiversity and Microbial Life in the Universe, pp. 569-591. Klower Academic Publishers, Dortrecht, the Netherlands.

Coffin, M.F., and O. Eldholm. 1994. Large igneous provinces: crustal structure, dimensions, and external consequences. Reviews of Geophysics 32(1):1-36.

Dasch, E.J. (editor). 1996b. Volcanic eruptions, volcanism. In MacMillan Encyclopedia of Earth Science, volume 1, pp. 1139, 1144. Simon & Schuster Macmillan, New York, NY.

Dickens, H., and A.A. Snelling. 2008. Precambrian geology and the Bible: a harmony. JOC 22(1):65-72.

Dillow, J.C. 1981. The Waters Above: Earth's Pre-Flood Vapor Canopy. Moody Press, Chicago, IL.

Evans, A.M. 1987. An Introduction to Ore Geology, 2nd Edition. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK.

Fetter, C.W. 1988. Applied Hydrogeology, 2nd Edition. Merrill Publishing Company, Columbus OH.

Fox, C.S. 1952. Water. The Philosophical Library, Inc., New York, NY.

Gilmour, I., and C. Koeberl. 2000. Impacts and the early Earth. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany.

Glikson, A.Y. 2001. The astronomical connection of terristrial evolution: crustal effects of post-3.8 Ga mega-impact clusters and evidence for major 3.2±0.1 Ga bombardment of the Earth-Moon System. Journal of Geodynamics 32:205-229.

Hartmann, W.H. 1989. Astronomy: The Cosmic Journey, 4th Edition. Wadsworth Publishing Company, Belmont, CA.

Heinrich, E.W. 1966. The Geology of Carbonatites. Rand McNally & Company, Chicago, IL.

Hunter, M.J. 1996. Is the pre-Flood/Flood boundary in the earth's mantle? CENTJ 10(3):344-357.

Hunter, M.J. 2000. The pre-Flood/Flood boundary at the base of the earth's transition zone. CENTJ 14(1):344-357.

Ingle, S., and M.F. Coffin. 2004. Impact origin for the greater Ontong Java Plateau? EPSL 218:123-134.

Jackson, J.A. (editor). 1997. Glossary of Geology, 4th Edition. American Geological Institute, Alexandria, VA.

Johnson, M.C., A.T. Anderson, Jr., and M.J. Rutherford. 1994. Pre-eruptive volatile content of magmas. In Carroll, M.R., and J.R. Holloway (editors), Reviews in Minerology. Volume 30: Volatiles in Magmas, p. 321. Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC.

Jones, A.P. 2005. Meteorite impacts as triggers to large igneous provinces. Elements 1:277-281.

Jones, A.P., D.G. Price, J. Neville, P.S. DeCarli, R.A. Glegg. 2002. Impact induced melting and the development of Large Igneous Provinces. EPSL 202:551-561.

Jorgensen, G.S. 1990. A computer model of the pre-Flood atmosphere. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceedings of Third International Conference on Creationism, pp. 185-197. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA.

Kovalenko, V.I., V.B. Naumov, A.V. Girnis, V.A. Dorofeeva, and V.V. Yarmolyuk. 2007. Average compositions of magmas and mantle sources of mid-oceanic ridges and intraplate oceanic and continental settings estimated from the data on melt inclusions and quenched glasses of basalt. Petrology 15(4): 361-396.

McGretchen, T.R., and G.W. Ullrich. 1973. Xenoliths in maars and diatremes with inferences for the Moon, Mars, and Venus. Journal of Geophysical Research 78(11):1844.

Middlemost, E.A.K. 1985. Magmas and Magmatic Rocks. Longman Group Ltd, New York, NY.

Milashev, V.A. 1984. Explosion Pipes. Springer-Verlag. Berlin, Germany.

Mitchell, R.H. 1986. Kimberlites. Plenum Press, New York, NY.

Morgan, J.P., T.J. Reston, and C.R. Ranero. 2004. Contemporaneous mass extinctions, continental flood basalts, and impact signals: are mantle plume-induced lithospheric gas explosions the casual link? EPSL 217:263-284.

Norman, J., N. Price, and M. Chukwu-Lke. 1977. Astrons - the earth's oldest scars? New Scientist 73:689-692.

Oard, M.J. 2009. How many impact craters should there be on Earth? JOC 23(3):61-69.

Rehwinkel, A.M. 1951. The Flood. Concordia Publishing House, Saint Louis, MO.

Schubert, G., and D. Sandwell. 1989. Crustal volumes of the continents and of oceanic and continental submarine plateaus. EPSL 92:234-246.

Smith, R. (editor). 1999c. Ultramafic rocks and glossary. Encyclopedia of Geology, pp. 450, 492. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago, IL.

Smith, R. (editor). 1999d. Ultramafic rocks and glossary. Encyclopedia of Geology, p. 488. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Chicago, IL.


Sood, M.K. 1981. Modern Igneous Petrology. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

Snelling, A.A. 2008. Catastrophic granite formation: rapid melting of source rocks, and rapid magma intrusion and cooling. Answers Research Journal 1:11:25.

Spencer, W.R. 1998a. Catastrophic impact bombardment surrounding the Genesis Flood. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Creationism, pp. 553-566. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA.

Spencer, W.R. 1998b. Geophysical effects of impacts during the Genesis Flood. In Walsh, R.E. (editor), Proceedings of Fourth International Conference on Creationism, pp. 567-579. Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA.

Trenberth, K.E. and L. Smith. 2005. The mass in the atmosphere: a constraint on global analysis. Journal of Climate 18(6):864-875.

Unfred, D.W. 1984. Asteroidal impacts and the Flood-Judgment. CRSQ 21:82-87.

Whitcomb, J.C., Jr., and H.M. Morris. 1961. The Genesis Flood. The Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing Company. Phillipsburg, NJ.

His Kingdom Coming to Afghanistan?

“Have you ever had a dream about a man in white?” is a way that some Christian workers open a conversation with Afghans. Stories abound in Afghanistan about meeting the Lord in a dream or vision. A young man in Eastern Afghanistan, Najib, tells this story: “I had a copy of the Injil (New Testament) and had read parts of it. One morning I awoke early and went to the forest for a walk in the cool part of the day. On my walk I was met by Isa Masi (Jesus). I was so amazed! The next day I got up early to see if we could meet again. Yes, He was there! I was afraid to tell anyone because I thought He might not come back. Every day for three months I walked with Him in this forest.”

Why Are Afghans Turning to Christ? “The gospel of the Kingdom is first and foremost attractive,” says my good friend Joseph. This is true everywhere and especially in Afghanistan. One Pushtun tribal leader said last year, “These Taliban are not good Muslims; they do not obey the Q’uran; they do not care about the Afghan people; they are cruel people.” Increasingly Afghans are meeting others who follow Jesus. What Afghans are finding is that it is possible to live in real freedom!

(from the article "His Kingdom Coming to Afghanistan?" by Peter Bruce, Mission Frontiers, September 2010. Click here for the full article.)